The relationship between the priests, who are the descendants of Aaron, and the Levites, the other members of the tribe of Levi, is one of the thorny problems of the Old Testament religion. Any consideration of the Levites must take into account the evidence provided by the Bible, Julius Wellhausen’s reconstruction of it, and the many ways in which contemporary scholars have reacted to his evolutionary view.
I. Biblical Background
a. The Pentateuch
The Levites gain prominence in the Pentateuch in connection with Moses and Aaron (Ex. 2.1–10; 4.14; 6.16–27). After Aaron led the people into apostasy with the golden calf (Ex. 32.25ff), the sons of Levi avenged the Lord’s honor by punishing many of the wicked. This demonstration of faithfulness to God may partially explain the great responsibilities assigned to this tribe in the Pentateuchal legislation.
The role of the Levites as ministers of the tabernacle, which is clearly detailed in Numbers, is anticipated in Ex. 38:21, where they collaborate in the construction of the tabernacle under the supervision of Aaron’s son Ithamar. In the preparatory laws for the wilderness march, Levi was separated from the tribes by God and put in charge of the dismantling, transportation, and erection of the tabernacle (Num. 1:47–54). The sons of Levi camped around the tabernacle, and apparently served as a buffer to protect the other tribes from the wrath of God, wrath that threatened them if they inadvertently came into contact with the sacred tent or its furnishings (Num. 1.51, 53; 2.17 ).
The Levites were forbidden to serve as priests, a privilege reserved, under pain of death, for the sons of Aaron (Num. 3.10); but they were dedicated to an auxiliary ministry for the priests, especially with the manual tasks of caring for the tabernacle (Num. 3.5ff). Furthermore, they performed an important service for the other tribes by acting as substitutes for the firstborn of each family, to which God was entitled in view of the fact that He spared the firstborn of Israel during the Passover celebration in Egypt (cf. Ex. 13.2ff, 13). As representatives of the firstborn of the tribes (Numbers 3.40ff) the Levites were part of the “transcendent principle of representation” by which the concept of a people totally dependent on God and entirely surrendered to him was given effect (cf. HW Robinson, Inspiration and Revelation in the Old Testament, 1953, pp. 219–221).
Each of Levi’s families had specific functions. The sons of Kohath (who numbered 2,750 between the ages of 30 and 50 according to Num. 4.36) were in charge of moving the furniture once it had been carefully covered by the priests, who were the only ones who could touch it (Num. 3.29 –32; 4.1ff.). The Kohathites were supervised by Eleazar, son of Aaron. The sons of Gershon (2630; Num. 4.40) took care of the coverings, the ropes, and the curtains under the supervision of Ithamar, son of Aaron (Num. 3.21–26; 4.21ff). The sons of Merari (3,200; Nm. 4.44) had the task of transporting and lifting the structure of the tabernacle and its patio (Nm. 3.35–37; 4.29ff).
The representative function of the Levites is symbolized in the rituals of purification and dedication (Num. 8.5ff). For example, both the fact that the Israelites (probably through their tribal leaders) laid hands on the Levites (8.10), recognizing them as substitutes (cf. Lev. 4.24, etc.), and the fact that the priests offering the Levites as a wave offering (probably bringing them to the altar and then setting them aside) on behalf of the people (8:11), suggest that the Levites were given by the Israelites to the sons of Aaron to replace them. This is made explicit in 8:16ff, where the sons of Levi are called neṯûnı̂m‘gifts’.
They began their service at 25 years of age and continued until they were 50, when they entered a kind of semi-retirement with limited obligations (Numbers 8:24-26). There may have been a five-year apprenticeship period, because apparently full responsibility for transporting the tabernacle and its furnishings fell on the shoulders of men between 30 and 50 (Num. 4.3ff.). When David established a permanent place for the ark, the age was lowered to 20 years because adult Levites were no longer needed as porters (1 Chron. 23.24ff.).
The Levitical responsibility to represent the people carried with it certain privileges. Although they had no inheritance in the land (ie no portion of it was set aside for their exclusive use: Nm. 18.23-24; Dt. 12.12ff.), the Levites were supported by the tithes of the people, while the priests received the shares. of the offerings that were not consumed in the sacrifices, the first fruits of the greater and lesser cattle, and a tithe of the Levitical tithes (Num. 18.8ff, 21ff; cf. Dt. 18.1–4). Occasionally both the priests and the Levites shared the spoils of battle (eg Nm. 31.25ff.). In addition, the Levites had permission to reside in 48 cities set aside for their use (Num. 35.1ss; Jos. 21.1ss). Around each city a grazing area was delimited for them. Six of the cities, three on each side of the Jordan, served as cities of refuge (* Shelter, Cities of).
The transition from wilderness wanderings to settled life in Canaan (anticipated in Num. 35 by establishing the Levitical cities) brought with it both an increased concern for the welfare of the Levites, and an expansion of their obligations in order to address the needs of a decentralized life model. Deuteronomy strongly emphasizes the responsibilities of the Israelites towards the sons of Levi, who were to participate in the rejoicing of the tribes (12:12), in their tithes and certain offerings (12:18–19; 14:28–29), and in their festivals. main ones, especially that of the weeks and that of the tabernacles (16.11–14). The Levites who were scattered throughout the territory were to share equally both the ministry and the offerings with those residing in the central sanctuary (18:6–8).
While Nm. characteristically calls the priests sons of Aaron (eg 10:8), Deuteronomy frequently uses the expression Levitical priests (eg 18:1). Although some scholars (see below) have argued that no distinction is made between priest and Levite in Deuteronomy, the fact that different portions are assigned to the priests in Dt. 18.3ff. and to the Levites in 18.6ff. suggests that it holds. to distinction. The phrase “Levitic priests” (eg Dt. 17.9, 18; 18.1; 24.8; 27.9; cf. Jos. 3.3; 8.33) seems to mean “priests of the tribe of Levi”. To them the Deuteronomic code assigns numerous duties in addition to the care of the sanctuary: they serve as judges in cases involving difficult decisions (17.8–9), regulate the control of lepers (24.8), guard the book of the law (17.18), and they help Moses in the covenant renewal ceremony (27.9).
Within the family of Kohath the office of high priest (Heb. hakkōhēn‘priest’ ; hakkōhēn hammāšı̂aḥ, ‘anointed priest’ ) was exercised by the eldest representative of Eleazar’s family, unless the sanctions of Lv. 21.16–23. He was consecrated in the same way as the other priests and shared in his routine duties. Only he wore the special garments (Ex. 28; * High Priest’s Pectoral* Miter* Dress) and interpreted the oracles (* Urim and Thummim). On the day of *atonement he represented the chosen people before Yahweh, sprinkling the blood of the sacrificial goat on the mercy seat (* sacrifice and offering).
b. The previous prophets
The priests play a more prominent role than the Levites in the book of Joshua, especially in the account of the crossing of the Jordan and the conquest of Jericho. They were sometimes called “Levite priests” or “Levite priests” (eg Jos. 3.3; 8.33) and more frequently plain “priests” (eg Jos. 3.6ff; 4.9ff), and they had the fundamental function of carrying the ark of the Lord. The tabernacle, however, which was kept by the Levites, is not mentioned (with the possible exception of 6:24) until it was erected at Shiloh (18:1; 19:51) after the conquest of Canaan. Apparently the transportation of the ark was entrusted to the priests rather than to the Kohathites (cf. Nm. 4.15) because of the supreme importance of these journeys: God, whose presence the ark symbolized, went with them conquering and with the object to conquer The Levites entered the foreground only when the time came to divide the land (cf. Jos. 14.3ff). The distinction between priests and Levites is clearly maintained: the Levites remind Eleazar, the priest, and Joshua of what Moses commanded regarding the Levitical cities (Josh. 21:1–3); the Kohathites are divided into two groups: those who descended from Aaron (ie the priests) and the others (Jos. 21.4–5).
The general relaxation in worship during the days between the conquest of Canaan and the establishment of the monarchy is illustrated in the two Levitical accounts of Judges. Micah’s Levite (Judges 17–18) is said to have been a native of Bethlehem and a member of the family of Judah (17.7). How could he be both a Levite and a Judahite? The answer depends on whether the Levite can be identified with *Jonathan son of Gershon (18.30). If it is the same person (as would seem likely), then the Levite’s relationship to Judah would be geographical, not genealogical, despite the phrase “of the tribe of Judah” (17.7). If it is not the same person, then the Levite may be an example of the possibility that men from other tribes could, at that time, join the priestly tribe. This may have been the case with *Jonathan, who was an Ephraimite (cf. 1 Sam. 1.1; 1 Chron. 6.28). There are some indications that the term Levite was a functional title meaning “sworn person with vote”, as well as a tribal designation (cf. WF Albright, Archeology and the Religion of Israel3, 1953, pp. 109, 204ff. ); however, TJ Meek (Hebrew Origins3, 1960, pp. 121ff) argues that the Levites were originally a secular tribe that took on priestly functions not only in Israel but perhaps also in Arabia. The macabre story of the Levite and his concubine (Judges 19) is further testimony to the itinerant life of the Levites, and to the general laxity of the age. The lack of a central authority limited the control that the central sanctuary at Shiloh should have exercised (Judg. 18.31) and allowed numerous sanctuaries to arise that paid little attention to what was instituted by Moses.
The Levites appear only occasionally in the rest of the earlier prophets, usually in connection with their mission to transport the ark (1 Sam. 6.15; 2 Sam. 15.24; 1 Kings 8.4). When *Jeroboam I erected rival sanctuaries at Dan and Bethel he appointed non-Levitical priests, probably in order to sever relations with the Jerusalem temple as completely as possible (1 Kings 12:31; cf. 2 Chron. 11:13– 14; 13.9–10). An important feature of the monarchy…